The essence of living systems

Bertalanffy (2015) described a living organism as a complex open system that sustains itself by continuously exchanging matter with its environment (p. 156). Key characteristics—metabolism, growth, development, self-regulation, response to stimuli, and spontaneous activity—arise from open system processes (p. 149). 

An open system involves two primary variables: 

• Statics: How the system maintains exchange, degeneration, and regeneration independent of time.
• Dynamics: How the system evolves over time.

A system begins in an unstable state and progresses toward stability, driving growth and development. Environmental changes can disrupt this steady state, triggering adaptation and stimulus responses (Bertalanffy, 2015, p. 160). 

Capra and Luisi (2014) proposed a holistic theory of life integrating pattern, structure, and process, asserting that “the process of life is the activity involved in the continual embodiment of an autopoietic pattern within a dissipative structure,” which they connect to cognition, or “the process of knowing” (p. 255). Below are summaries of these concepts: 

Pattern

An organism's form, order, and quality are defined by the configuration of relationships among its components that shape its essential characteristics. Mapping these relationships describes the pattern. For example, a beehive’s layout shows how bees work together to make honey. 

Structure

An organism's substance, matter, and quantity embody the organization pattern. Mapping physical components outlines the structure. For example, a tree’s roots, trunk, and leaves form its solid shape. 

Life Process

The ongoing embodiment of the system’s pattern within its structure (Capra & Luisi, 2014, p. 258). Process links pattern and structure through continuous interaction among components. For example, a river keeps flowing by moving water through its banks. 

Self-Making (Autopoiesis)

Living systems continuously regenerate themselves through autopoiesis, or “self-making.” This involves dynamic relationships among production processes, distinguishing biological from physical phenomena (p. 262). For example, a lizard regrows its tail after losing it. 

Dissipative Structures

Structurally open yet organizationally closed, these systems feature boundaries that enclose metabolic networks while filtering energy and matter. For example, human skin encloses internal processes, filtering nutrients in and waste out, enabling self-renewal and evolution through environmental interaction. Or a lake takes in rainwater and releases vapor while remaining a lake. 

Cognition

Drawing from Bateson’s ecological insights, Capra and Luisi (2014) argued that cognition—the act of knowing—is inseparable from life (p. 267). The Santiago Theory posits that cognition extends beyond brain-based thinking to include perception, emotion, and action, evident in brainless organisms like plants reacting to environmental changes. For example, a sunflower turns toward the sun to grow. 

Continuous

Continuity is central to living systems. Components, matter, and processes perpetually change—cells regenerate, organs evolve, and growth persists—until these processes cease, marking the end of organic life (Meadows, 2008, p. 15). For example, your hair keeps growing until you’re no longer alive. 

In short, living things act like open systems, always swapping materials with their surroundings. They grow, adjust, and survive by handling both calm times and shifts. Life blends patterns (how parts link up), structures (what they’re built from), and processes (how they stay active). They even rebuild themselves and sense their world, like plants turning to light. Life’s a nonstop, moving blend of these things, keeping it all going until it stops.